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Four priorities for an effective EU Anti-Corruption Strategy
With good governance norms under growing pressure, the EU has an opportunity to show decisive leadership in the fight against corruption. The European Commission’s first EU-wide Anti-Corruption Strategy, building on the recently adopted EU Anti-Corruption Directive, is a chance to strengthen coordination across Member States and realise the promise of the Directive for the EU’s 450+ million inhabitants. Done well, it will reinforce the security, economic prosperity and political stability that underpin Europe’s long-term competitiveness. The Basel Institute on Governance has responded to the Commission’s call for evidence with recommendations drawn from more than two decades of research and hands-on work with governments, law enforcement agencies, businesses and civil society. Our submission highlights four areas that we believe should be central to the new Strategy. These are briefly summarised below, and included in full in the submission. Promote a whole-of-society approach Governments cannot tackle complex corruption risks alone. Businesses, civil society, researchers and affected communities all have a role to play. The Strategy should therefore explicitly endorse Anti-Corruption Collective Action. This approach brings stakeholders together to identify shared risks, agree standards and develop practical mechanisms for compliance and accountability. It has been used to address money laundering risks in the financial services sector, bribery and extortion in ports, corruption in public procurement and integrity challenges in the defence sector. It is widely endorsed by organisations including the OECD, UNODC and UN Global Compact, and already included in many national anti-corruption strategies. Harness data and technology responsibly Artificial intelligence, big data analytics, open-source intelligence and automated risk indicators can help identify suspicious procurement patterns, conflicts of interest, illicit financial flows and hidden relationships. Research through the EU-funded FALCON project, of which the Basel Institute is a consortium member, shows that effective anti-corruption systems increasingly depend on the ability to collect, connect and analyse large volumes of information. The Strategy should support responsible testing of new tools, including through regulatory sandboxes, while also investing in the foundations they require: digitisation, interoperable systems, standardised datasets, machine-readable information and secure cross-border data sharing. Focus on priority risks and high-risk activities Beyond these approaches, our submission highlights four high-risk areas requiring particular attention. - Foreign bribery: Enforcement remains uneven and settlements often fail to address the harm suffered by affected countries and communities. The Strategy should promote stronger enforcement and fairer approaches to compensation and the use of recovered proceeds. - Public procurement: Risks are rising as Europe increases investment in defence, infrastructure, energy security and strategic technologies. Priorities should include stronger transparency, better oversight and data-driven risk assessment. - Borders and customs: Corruption at borders can facilitate smuggling, trafficking, sanctions evasion and tax fraud. Greater automation, data integration and consistent procedures can strengthen prevention and detection. - Financial infrastructure: Shell companies, professional intermediaries, offshore structures and virtual assets can help conceal corrupt proceeds. The Strategy should strengthen links between anti-corruption, anti-money laundering and asset recovery, including through the EU’s new Anti-Money Laundering Authority. Build in an ongoing research, innovation and learning agenda Corruption constantly evolves as actors adapt to new laws, technologies and enforcement practices. Anti-corruption policy must evolve too. Research also shows that anti-corruption laws alone do not change corrupt behaviour. Social norms, political incentives and institutional cultures can sustain corruption even where formal rules are strong. The Strategy should support sustained applied research and create stronger channels for researchers, policymakers, law enforcement, businesses and civil society to exchange evidence and lessons. It should also use differences between national systems as opportunities to test approaches, evaluate results and improve policy across the Union. Learn more - Download the Basel Institute on Governance’s full submission to the European Commission’s call for evidence on the EU Anti-Corruption Strategy. - See complementary perspectives on the EU Anti-Corruption Directive on how it might affect anti-corruption enforcement from a legal and institutional perspective, and on what the Directive reveals about how corruption is evolving in the EU and beyond.
Congratulations to the winners of the International Collective Action Awards 2026
The winners of the International Collective Action Awards 2026 were announced on 9 June during the International Collective Action Conference in Basel, Switzerland. Presented by the Basel Institute on Governance, the Awards recognise outstanding initiatives that demonstrate the power of Collective Action to address corruption, strengthen business integrity and contribute to fairer and more transparent markets. Alliance for Integrity: Outstanding Achievements award The Gretta Fenner Outstanding Achievement in Collective Action Award 2026 was awarded to Alliance for Integrity. The initiative was recognised for building one of the world’s largest business integrity Collective Action networks, bringing together companies, business associations, governments and civil society organisations across 16 countries. Through practical training, dialogue and collaboration, Alliance for Integrity has helped thousands of businesses – particularly small and medium-sized enterprises – strengthen their integrity and compliance practices. The initiative demonstrates how Collective Action can be scaled across different regions and contexts to create lasting impact. CoST Malawi’s Red Flags Algorithm: Inspirational Newcomer award The Collective Action Inspirational Newcomer Award 2026 was awarded to CoST Malawi Infrastructure Transparency Initiative: Red Flags Algorithm. The initiative was recognised for its innovative approach to strengthening transparency and accountability in public infrastructure projects. At the centre of the initiative is the Red Flags Algorithm, integrated into Malawi’s Information Platform for Public Infrastructure, which helps identify potential corruption risks and anomalies in project data. By combining technology, transparency and multi-stakeholder collaboration, the initiative is helping improve oversight of public infrastructure investments and strengthen public trust. Recognising excellence in Collective Action The International Collective Action Awards celebrate initiatives that bring together businesses, governments, civil society organisations and other stakeholders to address shared integrity challenges that no single actor can solve alone. The Basel Institute congratulates the winners and all finalists for their commitment to advancing integrity and accountability through Collective Action. Their achievements demonstrate the continued importance of collaboration in addressing corruption risks and promoting responsible business conduct around the world. The Conference and Awards are supported by the Siemens Integrity Initiative.
Cast your vote in the 2026 Collective Action Awards
From grassroots transparency tools to global business integrity networks, this year’s finalists for the International Collective Action Awards show the breadth, creativity and growing impact of Collective Action around the world. Public voting is now open and everyone is invited to help choose the winners. The Awards recognise organisations advancing business integrity through Collective Action – bringing together businesses, governments, civil society and other stakeholders to tackle corruption and strengthen fairer, more transparent markets. The winners will be announced during the 6th International Collective Action Conference in Basel, Switzerland, on 9–10 June 2026. Presented by the Basel Institute on Governance since 2022, the Awards celebrate initiatives that demonstrate how Collective Action can deliver practical solutions to shared integrity challenges across sectors and regions. A diverse field of finalists This year’s finalists reflect the growing diversity of Collective Action initiatives worldwide. They range from long-running international integrity networks supporting small businesses, to innovative digital tools improving transparency in public infrastructure, to emerging platforms creating new opportunities for business engagement in global anti-corruption policymaking. The shortlisted initiatives also highlight the geographical reach of Collective Action efforts today, with finalists working across Africa, Latin America, Europe and global multilateral platforms. An international jury selected the finalists from a strong field of nominations representing a wide variety of sectors, approaches and partnerships. Gretta Fenner Outstanding Achievement in Collective Action This category is named in honour of the Basel Institute’s late Managing Director, Gretta Fenner. It recognises organisations that have made a sustained and significant contribution to advancing Collective Action and promoting business integrity over time. The 2026 finalists are: Alliance for Integrity – a global multi-stakeholder initiative that has built integrity networks across 16 countries and supported hundreds of trainers and companies in strengthening compliance and anti-corruption practices, particularly among SMEs. Anti-Corruption Collective Action Impact Centre – hosted by the International Anti-Corruption Academy IACA , the Centre supports locally led anti-corruption initiatives worldwide through mentorship, training and practical implementation support. Integridad Corporativa 500 IC500 – a Mexican transparency benchmark initiative that evaluates the anti-corruption policies and governance practices of the country’s 500 largest companies, helping drive measurable improvements in corporate transparency. Collective Action Inspirational Newcomer The Inspirational Newcomer category recognises initiatives active for fewer than two years that have already shown strong promise and early impact. This year’s finalists are: COSP Private Sector Platform – launched by the United Nations Global Compact and UNODC to create new opportunities for private sector participation in global anti-corruption policymaking linked to the UN Convention against Corruption. CoST Malawi Infrastructure Transparency Initiative: Red Flags Algorithm – an innovative digital tool that uses data analysis to identify potential corruption and procurement risks in public infrastructure projects in Malawi. TRIPODE: Collective Action for Business Integrity and SME Inclusion in Mexico – a joint initiative helping companies, especially SMEs, navigate integrity expectations through practical guidance, peer learning and public-private dialogue. Although very different in focus, the finalists all demonstrate the value of collaborative approaches in addressing complex integrity challenges – whether through technology, policy engagement or hands-on support for businesses. An international jury with deep expertise The finalists were pre-selected by an international jury bringing together expertise from governance, anti-corruption, journalism, international law and public policy. The jury included Nathalie Delapalme, CEO of the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, Nicola Bonucci, former OECD Director of Legal Affairs and Basel Institute Board member, Rhoda Weeks-Brown, former General Counsel of the IMF, and award-winning investigative journalist Sheila S. Coronel of Columbia Journalism School. Their collective experience spans anti-corruption policy, rule of law, investigative journalism, international governance and responsible business conduct, reflecting the multidisciplinary nature of Collective Action itself. Cast your vote Public voting is open until 2 June 2026. Visit the Awards page on the B20 Collective Action Hub to learn more about the finalists and cast your vote in each category. The Collective Action Awards are supported by the Siemens Integrity Initiative.
Building trust: how Collective Action strengthens business ecosystems
In this article, Celia Lourens examines the role of cross-sectoral trust for a functional business environment. Collective Action, she argues, can be an approach to overcoming trust deficits between relevant stakeholders. Celia Lourens supports the organisation of our 6th International Collective Action Conference. At its core, anti-corruption Collective Action is about tackling corruption challenges together, rather than alone. Collective Action is primarily driven by businesses, often in collaboration with government representatives and civil society, to address a shared challenge and attain a common objective. Building trust is one critical element of Collective Action efforts, as it requires a genuine and sustained willingness from all involved stakeholders to collaborate. Trust across sectors: the foundation of effective markets Markets depend on trust – not only between businesses and their customers or employees and their organisational leadership, but between the institutions that shape the business environment: Business relies on regulatory bodies to create fair and predictable markets. Governments depend on businesses to act with integrity, beyond merely meeting compliance requirements. Civil society holds both public and private sectors accountable whilst advancing transparency and public confidence. Where these relationships are founded in trust, business ecosystems function more effectively and markets remain stable. Yet, cross-sector trust is increasingly under strain. Geopolitical volatility, tightening regulations and elevated complexity within supply chains are creating distance between the very actors who need to collaborate. The cost of low-trust systems When trust between the private sector, government and civil society breaks down, the consequences are immediate: slower transactions, higher compliance costs and due diligence burdens, duplicated oversight and heightened reputational risk. Oversight becomes adversarial, compliance turns reactive and businesses invest more time managing risks than creating value. In an era of heightened competitiveness, trust across sectors becomes the most valuable currency. Where it is systemically weak, a vicious cycle takes hold: low trust demands heightened scrutiny and more controls, which in turn erode trust further. Government enforcement of standards becomes inconsistent and civil society turns sceptical rather than being a partner. Breaking this cycle requires a different approach – one built on shared commitment, sustained engagement and coordinated action. This is where Collective Action comes into play. Collective Action as a trust-building mechanism In practice, Collective Action enables organisations to jointly raise integrity standards across industries, develop sector-specific norms and tackle systemic risks such as bribery and unethical conduct. Its ultimate objective – and the key incentive to participate in Collective Action initiatives – is to create fairer, more transparent markets where companies can compete on equal terms. But beyond its role as an anti-corruption approach, Collective Action also serves as a powerful trust-building mechanism. In a low-trust environment, individual organisations acting ethically on their own can find themselves at a disadvantage. Collective Action changes this dynamic. Shared commitments level the playing field, the involvement of multiple stakeholders builds credibility and joint accountability mechanisms increase transparency. Over time, this collaborative approach fosters trust where it is hardest to achieve – between actors with different roles, responsibilities and pressures. The result is a shift in systemic behaviour that lowers the cost of doing business and drives a more predictable business environment. From compliance to competitive advantage Too often, doing business with integrity is treated as a compliance obligation rather than a source of competitive advantage. Yet, in high-trust business environments, stronger partnerships and faster decision-making enable organisations to withstand disruptions. Organisations invested in building trust across their business ecosystem are better positioned to navigate complexity and sustain long-term value. Collective Action supports this shift by helping to shape markets that reward integrity, moving beyond a risk mitigation exercise. Building trust in practice This is exactly the focus of the 6th International Collective Action Conference, taking place on 9–10 June 2026 in Basel, Switzerland. Bringing together leaders from business, government and civil society, the conference is designed as a space not just for dialogue, but for practical exchange. It showcases how Collective Action initiatives are being implemented across sectors, what makes them effective and how they can be adapted to different contexts. The conference reflects a core conviction: trust across sectors does not happen by default but must be actively built. Organisations that commit to building trust together, as a collective, will not only manage risks more effectively, but help shape a new competitive advantage rooted in integrity. Learn more 6th International Collective Action Conference 2026 B20 Collective Action Hub Working Paper 56: Anti-corruption Collective Action: A typology for a new era Book: Collective Action in practice: a game-changer for business integrity
Professor Anne Peters on how anti-corruption organisations can survive in today’s volatile world
Professor Anne Peters, a renowned scholar of international law and governance, stepped down from her role as Vice President of the Basel Institute on Governance at the end of 2025. In this Q&A she looks back at her involvement with the Basel Institute since its inception more than 23 years ago. Her insights emphasise the importance of underpinning anti-corruption and governance efforts with interdisciplinary academic research, and of connecting abstract concepts like governance and asset recovery to real-world challenges like human rights, biodiversity and climate change. She traces the Basel Institute’s path from a small group of friends driven by individual passion to a highly professional, global centre of expertise on anti-corruption and asset recovery. This professionalism, she says, is essential for non-profit organisations to survive and even thrive in today’s unstable new world. Anne is known for her pioneering work on animal rights, human rights and corruption. She holds long-standing academic positions as Director of the Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law MPIL Heidelberg and Professor of International Law at the University of Basel. You were a part of the Basel Institute from the beginning. How did it all start? My engagement with the Institute took root when I joined the University of Basel in 2001 and met Professor Mark Pieth, the Institute’s founder and former President. He was involved in establishing the Wolfsberg Group, an early multi-stakeholder initiative of banks focused on developing anti-money laundering guidelines. This was a time when concepts like banking due diligence and know-your-customer were relatively unknown, and the idea of multi-stakeholder associations didn’t even exist. Because of Mark Pieth’s personal standing as a Professor of Criminal Law at the University of Basel and as Chair of the OECD Working Group on Bribery, he received requests for advisory and consultancy services on problems of corruption and governance. The Basel Institute gradually rose out of those beginnings, helped by individuals like Gemma Aiolfi and Thomas Christ, who continued to play key roles at the Institute for the next two decades. Back then we used to meet in cafés or in Mark’s office, and we just had a letterhead and a flyer describing the Basel Institute on Governance. Things became more formalised when we received seed funding from a foundation, drafted statutes and – this was the game-changer – hired Gretta Fenner in 2005. Gretta was the first paid staff member. We miss her dearly. What excited you about it? What did you bring from the academic world? I was young, I had energy and I liked Mark as a colleague and friend. The concept of governance was also quite new and exciting. I am a public international lawyer, not a criminal lawyer, so I had little technical expertise in corruption or money laundering. But since these crimes have clear transnational dimensions, my background in international law made sense. I was able to bring the academic perspective to the Institute’s work, later reinforced by Lucy Koechlin and Claudia Baez Camargo, who joined to lead research on public and global governance. The association with the University of Basel was crucial. It gave structure to the original idea: providing practical advice and assistance on corruption and governance, grounded in academic research. An important aspect was financing doctoral students who would work at the Basel Institute while completing their PhDs. I supervised three such dissertations. This academic underpinning and insistence on research and evidence is still one of the Basel Institute’s strongest points. What other milestones and innovations do you remember? A major academic milestone was our conference on non-state actors and the resulting book, Non-State Actors as Standard Setters , which was published with Cambridge University Press in 2009. The term “non-state actor” – covering the private sector as well as non-profit organisations, academia, the media and the like – was still novel. I co-edited the book with Gretta Fenner, Lucy Koechlin and our former Board colleague and social anthropologist Till Förster. It was a serious and influential publication that is still cited today. I remember us retreating for a full day to review drafts. At first the mix of different writing styles and perspectives – political science, law, social anthropology and sociology – was a bit of a shock. Then we realised the value of this interdisciplinary nature in helping to gain a holistic perspective of how non-state actors can contribute to setting governance standards in the messy world of real life. Again, this interdisciplinary approach remains central to the Basel Institute’s current work. How did the Basel Institute’s work expand into so many different areas – from asset recovery to conflicts of interest, to money laundering in the art market. What’s the connection? Personal interests, reputations and networks mattered greatly. And new concepts were appearing in the international anti-corruption arena. People and governments needed help working out how to apply them in practice in different contexts. That’s what happened with asset recovery, a concept that appeared in the 2003 UN Convention Against Corruption with the aim of depriving corrupt actors of their criminal gains. We developed a distinct workstream at the Basel Institute that soon became the International Centre for Asset Recovery. The concept and practice of Collective Action – sustained, trust-based multi-stakeholder collaboration with the private sector to address specific corruption challenges – evolved in large part thanks to our colleague Gemma Aiolfi’s tireless efforts. Similarly, it was a personal interest that led myself and fellow board member Lukas Handschin to edit a book on Conflict of Interest in Global, Public and Corporate Governance published by Cambridge University Press. It’s a topic that I was convinced was underappreciated at the time and is now, in these current times, showing its importance. We did early work on money laundering in the art market. Again this was a personal interest of our board member Thomas Christ that is now a key concern for not only money laundering but sanctions evasion. A newer area we have helped to establish internationally is green corruption, i.e. applying anti-corruption and governance tools to address challenges like the mass extinction of species, biodiversity decline, the climate crisis. This is a topic that is dear to me personally and that is evolving fast. Common to this all is how the Basel Institute applies anti-corruption and governance research and tools to different fields that really matter in the world, from business to health to environmental protection. And human rights? How does that connect to corruption? My interest in the intersection between corruption and human rights grew from Gretta’s involvement in several side events at the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva. I began thinking about legal relationships between corruption and human rights and whether, for example, states have a human rights obligation to protect citizens from corruption. I wrote a Working Paper on the topic for the Basel Institute back in 2015 and later published two academic papers. You can get a short overview of the topic in this Quick Guide to corruption and human rights. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights UN Human Rights references my work in a recently published practical guide on corruption and human rights to which I contributed, as well as other work of the Basel Institute on human rights in the context of asset recovery laws. It’s great to see our scholarly work being used to underpin practical international guidance that will ultimately have impact on people’s lives. What does the current global context mean for anti-corruption efforts and organisations like the Basel Institute? We are in a period of profound global change. The political order is fundamentally shifting and the optimism of the 1990s is all but gone. The United States, an early driver of international anti-corruption treaties, efforts and successes, is retreating from its role. In some countries, anti-corruption laws and campaigns are misused for political purposes. Even if concepts like good governance, rule of law, human rights and democracy don’t seem to be en vogue right now, they remain important. Not least because they, and corruption, are key to understanding and tackling today’s toughest challenges, from poverty and inequality to crime and conflict. So non-profit organisations like the Basel Institute are more essential than ever, as are other non-state actors dedicated to tackling corruption and governance challenges. But it’s not easy for small organisations to survive in this rocky world, and many face their own governance challenges. That’s why it’s good that the Basel Institute has professionalised its governance and compliance structures over the years, while keeping the sense of passion and personal conviction that characterised its early years. Any bright side for those who care about anti-corruption and governance? On the positive side, public awareness, opposition and global debate about corruption is far stronger than in the past. And much of international law – on travel, transportation, communication, diplomatic relations etc. – functions quietly and effectively every day. Despite how dire the current situation seems, change for the better has only ever occurred after major catastrophes. For example, the establishment of the International Criminal Court in 1998 was a direct result of the rape camps and the Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The question is how severe crises must become and how much they must affect people directly before meaningful reform occurs. Climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution, for example, are slow-moving crises that still feel abstract to many. What’s coming up for you personally? In my research I remain focused on the big-picture development of the international legal order. I look forward to the publication in 2026 of the Oxford Handbook of Global Animal Law , which I co-edited and which seeks to authoritatively establish this fairly new field of international law. Alongside my research I continue to advise the German Foreign Affairs Department and sometimes the Swiss, too , and will serve as an expert witness on international legal questions in a case before a domestic court. And, of course I will continue to follow and support what the Basel Institute is doing. The organisation and its mission remain dear to my heart. Thank you, Anne Peters, for your time and for your unwavering support and guidance over so many years. We wish you well in your future endeavours and adventures.
Publications
Working Paper 60: Understanding the enemy: Insights from corrupt networks to improve anti-corruption Collective Action initiatives
Corruption is not simply about individual misconduct. It is a networked phenomenon that arises from entrenched social, economic and political interactions. It is orchestrated through coordination between groups and clusters of individuals.
This Working Paper explores the networked nature of corruption and the opportunities this presents for anti-corruption efforts. The aim is to understand how shifting the unit of analysis from individuals to networks helps to understand the persistence and resilience of corruption, while opening up new anti-corruption perspectives.
A meta-analysis of findings from more than 15 years of research on informal networks and corruption underpins the conceptualisation of corrupt networks. The paper argues that a focus on networks helps to shed light on the functionality of corruption – from petty bribery to large-scale public procurement fraud – and the underlying social norms that enable it.
Understanding the structures, functions and modus operandi of the informal networks associated with corruption and applying the network logic to anti-corruption strategies can help to achieve better outcomes. The paper specifically looks at anti-corruption Collective Action initiatives, suggesting that these should emulate positive aspects of informal networks.
About this Working Paper
This paper is published as part of the Basel Institute on Governance Working Paper series, ISSN: 2624-9650. You may share or republish it under a Creative Commons BY-NC-ND 4.0 International Licence.
The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the Basel Institute on Governance, its donors and partners, or the University of Basel.
Anti-corruption Collective Action in the G20/B20 process: Charting progress 2020–2024
This report analyses the approaches of the previous five B20 presidencies to addressing anti-corruption Collective Action. It captures lessons learned and provides recommendations for future B20/G20 cycles. It is primarily intended for upcoming B20/G20 presidencies, B20 Integrity & Compliance Task Force members and organisations engaging with the B20/G20.
About this report
You may share or republish this report under a Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence.
Suggested citation: Scarlet Wannenwetsch. 2025. ‘Anti-corruption Collective Action in the G20/B20 process: Charting progress 2020–2024.’ Basel Institute on Governance.
The report was funded by the Siemens Integrity Initiative, which supports organisations in the fight against corruption and fraud through Collective Action, education and training. The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the author and do not reflect the position of Siemens or the Siemens Integrity Initiative.
Collective Action in practice: a game-changer for business integrity
Advancing business integrity through collective action
This paper explores governments’ role in fostering, facilitating and engaging in collective action initiatives to support the private sector in its fight against corruption. Building on the OECD Anti-Bribery Recommendation, the first international standard to recommend collective action as a tool to fight foreign bribery, the paper examines when, how and for what purposes governments participate in such initiatives. The paper offers a blueprint for government authorities seeking to support anti-corruption collective action initiatives in ways that are strategic, effective and sustainable.
Working Paper 56: Anti-corruption Collective Action: A typology for a new era
Since its first use by the World Bank in 2008, the concept of “anti-corruption Collective Action” has evolved into a well-established best practice to prevent corruption and strengthen business integrity.
This paper captures the specific characteristics of anti-corruption Collective Action that have emerged over time and translates them into an easy-to-grasp typology that reflects both the variety and unifying principles that make up the Collective Action ecosystem. It aims to:
- spark new impetus for engagement;
- open the concept to new stakeholders, topics and environments; and
- support existing initiatives in developing their long-term visions and aims.
In addition to supporting practitioners, updating the typology will also help strengthen the case for Collective Action as a normative corruption prevention practice.
About this report
The paper is published as part of the Basel Institute on Governance Working Paper series, ISSN: 2624-9650. You may share or republish it under a Creative Commons BY-NC-ND 4.0 International Licence.
The contents are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the Basel Institute on Governance, its donors and partners, or the University of Basel.
Suggested citation: Wannenwetsch, Scarlet. 2025. ‘Anti-corruption Collective Action: A typology for a new era.’ Working Paper 56, Basel Institute on Governance. Available at: baselgovernance.org/publications/wp-56.